how does research benefit teaching and learning and how does brain research influence teaching and learning | download free pdf
DrJohnRyder,United Kingdom,Researcher
Published Date:07-07-2017
Your Website URL(Optional)
Comment
Research and
Teaching
Teaching Development Wāhanga Whakapakari Ako
Dorothy Spiller
Teaching Development Wāhanga Whakapakari Ako
February 2012 Research and Teaching
Introduction
For many people, the link between research
and teaching remains unquestioned. The
assumption seems to be that academics base
their teaching content on research in their
field and that this is beneficial to learners.
Closer scrutiny indicates that the relationship
between teaching and research may not
always be harmonious or beneficial to
learners. Present day academics may be
surprised to learn that the emphasis on
research in the universities is a relatively
modern phenomenon that derived primarily
from the German universities and really only
th
took strong hold in the 20
century (Hattie & Marsh, 1996).
Furthermore, the relationship
between research and teaching
has been increasingly contested
by education scholars (see
Haigh, 2010). The assumption
that content–based research
inevitably benefits students has
been challenged and other ways of
synergising these two facets of academic life
to maximise the benefits for student learning
have been examined and developed.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 2 • The terminology currently used to describe
various ways of conceptualising the research-
teaching relationship can be confusing so
some basic definitions are outlined here:
Research-led teaching
Research-led teaching refers to the fact that
the content of the teaching is informed by the
discipline-related research of staff themselves
and that of others in the field.
Research-based teaching (or inquiry-
based learning).
Student learning is organised in such a way
as to develop generic research dispositions
and the particular modes of inquiry of their
academic discipline (Griffiths, 2004; Healey
2005; Jenkins, Breen & Lindsay, 2003).
Scholarship of teaching and learning
The design and practice of teaching and
learning activities is informed by research by
staff themselves or others in the field (Boyer,
1990; Haigh 2010).
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 3 • STUDENT-FOCUSED
Students as Participants
Research- Research-
tutored based
Curriculum Curriculum
emphasizes emphasizes
learning students
focused on undertaking
students inquiry-based
writing and learning
EMPHASIS ON
discussing
EMPHASIS ON RESEARCH
papers or
RESEARCH PROCESSES
essays
CONTENT AND
Research-led Research-
PROBLEMS
Curriculum is orientated
structured Curriculum
around emphasizes
teaching teaching
subject processes of
content knowledge
construction
in the subject
TEACHER-FOCUSED
Students as Audience
Figure 1. The links between curriculum design and the
research-teaching nexus (Healey, 2005)
Healey argues that most university teaching
emphasises the bottom half of this quadrant,
particularly the bottom-left quadrant. He suggests
that, contrariwise, universities should emphasise
the top half of this table, particularly research-
based teaching as this has the most benefits for
learners. Note too that Healey also talks about a
research-orientated curriculum that emphasises
the processes by which knowledge is produced in
the discipline and learning the skills for research
inquiry. Some questions arise from Healey‘s
argument, and these are explored next.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 4 • Research-led teaching
Does the fact that someone is an active
researcher automatically make him or her a
good teacher?
Universities often argue that a key factor that
distinguishes them from other institutions in the
post-compulsory sector is that the teaching is
research-led. Similarly, the research-teaching
nexus is another phrase used to describe the
nature of university education. It was seen as
axiomatic that when teaching content was directly
informed by research, then the quality of
students‘ learning would be enhanced. The
advertising campaigns that focus on the PBRF
attainments of particular disciplines promote the
perception that excellent research performance
will translate into a high quality learning
experience for students. Some of the arguments
put forward by advocates of this position include
the view that:
It is a given of academia.
In their comprehensive and seminal meta-analysis
of the relationship between teaching and research,
Hattie and Marsh (1996) cite numerous studies of
academics‘ views on the research–teaching
relationship. These studies suggest that for the
majority of academics this association is an
incontrovertible aspect of university education.
For proponents of this position, the argument for
a positive correlation between research and
teaching is simply because it is obvious (Hattie &
Marsh, 1996). Interestingly, the authors note that
most academics do not believe the inverse of this
proposition: that an academic needs to take
teaching seriously in order to be a good
researcher.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 5 • Active researchers are at the “cutting edge”
of their discipline.
In this explanation teachers who are active
researchers have the wherewithal to push their
students to the boundaries of knowledge and
understanding. It is assumed that researchers are
per se up with the latest developments in their
field, and that this must therefore positively affect
their teaching.
The same attributes characterise successful
researchers and successful teachers.
Proponents of this point of view contend that
there is a close correlation between the
characteristics and personal attributes of a
researcher and a teacher; the argument is,
therefore, that those who demonstrate good
research skills will naturally be geared to
becoming effective teachers. The attributes that
these practices are perceived to have in common
include a high level of commitment, focus,
organisation of materials, analysis and
communication (Hattie & Marsh, 1996).
The enthusiasm generated for the teacher by
active engagement in research will rub off
on the students.
The underlying premise here is that the
teacher will communicate the passion and
energy generated by active involvement in
research to students who will in turn be
excited by the subject and the possibilities
offered by research.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 6 • Academics can offer their students first-hand
knowledge.
This is similar to the ―cutting edge‖ argument, but
also involves the perception that students will
respond to the authenticity and credibility of a
teacher who is actively engaged in research.
Commentators who argue that there is a negative
correlation between research and teaching put
forward a number of counter arguments. These
include:
Time constraints - the idea that a
disproportionate commitment to either one of
these dimensions will have a negative impact
on performance in the other area (Hattie &
Marsh, 1996).
Different attributes - it is argued that the traits
demanded for extensive successful discipline
research output are fundamentally different
from those required in the teaching and
learning experience. For example, research
activity is portrayed as generally
individualistic, solitary and private whereas
teaching is a public inter-personal activity
(Hattie & Marsh, 1996).
Institutions, despite giving lip service to the
importance of teaching, still prioritise
discipline-related research (Gurm, 2009,
cited in Haigh, 2010). This prioritising makes
it difficult for teaching and research to be
positively correlated because of systemic
barriers. See also Zahra, 2011.
Career advancement is primarily linked to
research output.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 7 • Model Evidence
Negative Relationship
Scarcity That time on teaching and research is negatively correlated
That commitment to teaching and research is negatively
correlated
That time on teaching is positively related to teaching quality
That time on research is positively related to publications
Differential personality That the personality qualities of teaching and research are
negatively correlated
Researchers are loners, teaching communal
Divergent rewards That research and teaching are motivated by different reward
systems
Positive Relationship
Conventional wisdom That research performance is a prior condition for good
teaching
“G” Model That research and teaching share similar underlying qualities
(e.g., high commitment, creativity, investigativeness, and critical
analysis)
Zero relationship
Different enterprise That research and teaching have no common underlying
dimensions in common
Unrelated personality That the personality attributes of teachers and researchers are
orthogonal
Bureaucratic funding That the financing of teaching and research, if independent, will
lead to better resourcing and thus increased quality in both
The investigation by Hattie and Marsh (1996)
concluded that:
―the common belief that research and
teaching are inextricably entwined is
an enduring myth. At best research and
teaching are very loosely
coupled‖ (1996, p.529).
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 8 • It is unhelpful to accept the conventional
wisdom that research enhances teaching and
learning or to perpetuate the ongoing
conceptualisation of these two areas as
oppositional qualities. Both elements are core to
the requirements of tertiary educators and the
demands for higher performance on both fronts
are increasing. For instance, in 2010 the N.Z.
government signalled that up to 10% of
institutions‘ incomes would henceforth come
from programme completions rather than
enrolment of students. Student retention and
success obviously depends on sound teaching.
Furthermore, the discussion can more
constructively be reframed in terms of the way
research and teaching orientations can be
brought together to enhance the attributes that
students develop in tertiary education and the
quality of the teaching they receive as well as
their learning experience. In the next section of
this booklet, we will focus on ways of
synergising research and teaching and
maximising the opportunities that this
complementary relationship can offer for both
teachers and learners. In general, academics
need to deliberately and explicitly consider ways
of making research count in what happens for
the learners, and to develop this understanding
through sound and reflective teaching.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 9 •
A research-based approach to the
curriculum and the design of student
learning
1. General principles
Create a learning environment in which the
development of research-minded dispositions is a
deliberate part of the planning and
implementation of teaching and learning
activities:
work from the paradigm of your students as
co-inquirers;
introduce your own research explicitly into
your teaching;
invite students to participate in research
activities;
design inquiry-based learning and assessment
activities;
invite your students to engage with the
uncertain and the unresolved; and
search your own discipline‘s journals for
examples of how other teachers have helped
students to develop researching attitudes (e.g.
Mazur, 1997, for physics).
Jenkins, Breen and Lindsay (2003) have
developed a helpful framework for building the
connection between research and teaching. They
suggest that linking teaching and research is
achieved when:
students learn how research within their
discipline leads to knowledge creation;
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 10 • students are introduced to current research in
their disciplines;
students learn methods used to carry out
research in their disciplines;
students are motivated to learn through
knowledge of and direct involvement in
research;
students carry out research;
students participate in research conducted by
their lecturers;
students learn and are assessed by methods
resembling research procedures in their
discipline;
students learn how research is organised and
funded;
students become members of a school or
department and university culture within
which learning, research and scholarship are
integrated; and
students‘ learning is supported by systems
and structures at departmental, institutional,
and national level that facilitate staff
scholarship and research in the pedagogy of
the disciplines as well as disciplinary
scholarship and research.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 11 • Linking teaching and research is also achieved
through:
university staff at all levels basing practice and
policy on knowledge and learning obtained
through research (and reflections of practice);
academic staff using current pedagogic
research findings when designing and
delivering courses;
institutional managers and national policy
makers basing policies, including those on
teaching-research relations, on the best
available research and scholarly evidence.
Jenkins, A., Breen, R. & Lindsay, R. (2003)
Reshaping Teaching in Higher Education. Great Brit-
ain: Kogan Page, p.61.
2. Research-based teaching (enquiry-based
learning)
Enquiry-based learning requires students to think
and work in a ―research-minded‖ way (Meyer &
Land, 2006). Students are invited and encouraged
to formulate questions, to respond to what is only
partially formulated and to negotiate different
perspectives. Healey (2005) suggests that in order
to facilitate these processes, lecturers need to
work less in the traditional content-based
curriculum and move to one in which the
curriculum emphasises students undertaking
enquiry-based learning.
The argument is that enquiry-based teaching is
not just about training students for academic
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 12 • careers but can develop attributes that will be
crucial to successfully coping with the
st
complexities and uncertainties of the 21
century. Ray cited a number of educational
theorists, intellectuals and scholars who voice
this view. Here are some representative
examples:
“Intellectual uncertainty is not necessarily or simply a
negative experience, a dead-end sense of not
knowing, or of indeterminacy. It is just as well an
experience of something open, generative,
exhilarating, (the trembling of what remains
undecidable). I wish to suggest that „intellectual
uncertainty‟ is... a crucial dimension of any teaching
worthy of the name.”
(Royle, 2003, p.52)
“We are all researchers now... Teaching and
research are becoming ever more intimately related...
In a „knowledge society‟ all students—certainly all
graduates have to be researchers. Not only are they
engaged in the production of knowledge; they must
also be educated to cope with the risks and
uncertainties generated by the advance of science.”
(Scott, 2002, p.13)
“Never has the educational philosophy behind this
belief been more important: the changing world to be
faced by today‟s students will demand
unprecedented skills of intellectual flexibility, analysis
and enquiry.
Teaching students to be enquiring or research-based
in their approach is not just a throwback to quaint
notions of enlightenment or liberal education but
central to the hard-nosed skills required of the future
graduate workforce.”
(Hammond, 2007, 1)
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 13 • The attractiveness of enquiry-based learning is
that it can both provide the intellectual challenges
we want for our students, and potentially equip
students for a sophisticated intellectual and moral
engagement with society and the workplace. But
this kind of learning is of necessity unsettling,
because it invites students from places of safety
into terrains of uncertainty. It is best introduced
incrementally from the beginning of study, and
students must be invited to share its rationale and
approaches. Students need to be supported by
appropriate pedagogy and assessment. Working
in this way may not involve major practical
changes for teachers, but it does require a shift in
being which they too may find unsettling and
uncertain. We invite you to look at the complete
video of Ray‘s talk http://
wwwtest.waikato.ac.nz/tdu/resources/
researchteaching.shtml and to consider the
examples in this edition as an exciting way to
enhance research–teaching linkages and equip
graduates with the capabilities to cope in our
contemporary society.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 14 • In the summary that follows, Science educator
Susan Jones shows how she helps students to
develop research interests and skills.
Promoting the Teaching/ Research
Nexus in the Undergraduate
Curriculum
Abstract from HERDSA 2008
I outline a model for creating a whole-of-School
community of researchers, and promoting the
teaching/research nexus to students across the
three years of the undergraduate curriculum,
influenced by the Garnett and Holmes (1995)
model of the benefits of research in teaching and
learning, I have facilitated the development of an
integrated and incremental program of activities
across the three undergraduate years. I adopted a
blended learning approach with face-to-face
activities facilitated via a Web Portal. The
program E3 (―Enhance, Extend, Encourage‖)
aims to:
enhance our students‘ understanding of how
research and researchers contribute to current
knowledge and to society;
enhance the undergraduate experience through
engaging students in debate about topical
issues in science;
encourage our undergraduate students to think
of themselves as current and future
researchers; and
extend our undergraduate students‘
participation in research activities.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 15 • The program is voluntary, and open to all
interested. Through the Reach into Research
Web Portal.
For first year students: we upload fortnightly
topical research news items (e.g. Web links or
papers) relevant to their current learning and
usually showcasing Tasmanian/Australian
researchers.
For 2nd/3rd year students: while we welcome
our undergraduates at any seminar, we
organise two ―Reach into Research seminars‖
each semester. These seminars are followed by
extended discussions restricted to the
undergraduates, encouraging them to engage
with the speaker. We bring in members of the
local scientific community to give these
seminars. Students are exposed to the wider
implications of the science they are learning,
and to potential career paths.
The Zoology Student Volunteers program
links researchers offering projects with
2nd/3rd year undergraduates wanting real
research experiences. Volunteers choose from
a range of field or laboratory based projects
and gain authentic research experiences. Our
2007 Honours cohort included four students
who had taken part in the Student Volunteers
program.
These innovations are layered upon our formal
undergraduate curriculum in which we
increasingly provide students with opportunities
to ―think as scientists‖ and to reflect upon
research activity in the School. These range from
interactive discussions of ethics and research
design at first year level, training in data
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 16 • interpretation, analysis and scientific reporting in
second year, through to major group research
projects in the majority of our third year units. In
addition, the E3 program provides our Honours
and postgraduate students with the opportunity to
serve as role models and mentors through the
Student Volunteer Program. They benefit from
real assistance with their research, and gain
valuable skills in directing and being responsible
for team members. These are key generic skills
for researchers, and feedback from surveys of the
mentors suggests that this is an important
outcome of the initiative. We surveyed our
Honours and third year students to gauge the
impact of the activities described above on their
decisions to: (a) continue studying Zoology, or
(b) to plan a career in research. Results were
overwhelmingly positive.
AUTHOR: Susan Jones, University of Tasmania, Australia
S.M.Jonesutas.edu.au
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 17 • Snippets from practice
The following examples may give you some
ideas for your own practice. Many case studies
are also available on the enhancement themes
website (http://
www.enhancementthemes.ac.uk/). A common
underlying theme is that students are engaged as
participants rather than as audience, and learning
to generate questions is an essential ingredient.
If you want to introduce similar approaches in
your own practice, it is best to introduce them
progressively, starting in very small ways right
from the beginning of their studies. It is also
important to share the rationale for your
approach with the students and alert them to the
graduate attributes that they will be developing.
Examples outlined in Ray‘s talk
Faculty of Engineering Level 1
This exercise happened in induction week right
at the beginning of the students‘ university
study. They were formed into groups of three
and each group was given an item (for example,
a mobile phone or spectacles). They were then
instructed to knock on any door in the faculty
over the next seven days and ask faculty
members about their research and what impact it
could make on their particular object in ten
years‘ time. (All the faculty members had been
prepared for this.) The students had to ask for
explanations to be given in a language that they
could understand. In the following week student
groups explained their findings to the rest of the
class. In this exercise the students got a first-
hand encounter with researchers and research,
acquired a feeling for their academic home, and
began to think about the sorts of questions that
needed to be asked.
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 18 •
English Studies Paper Level 2
This learning initiative took place at an all
women‘s liberal arts college in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin. The college as a whole strongly
emphasised enquiry-based learning. The students
were studying ―Jazz‖ by Tony Morrison, a novel
with strong sexual content. The women were
given a scenario to address. In this scenario, the
novel had been set for 16 year old students at a
Milwaukee girls‘ school. The students were told
that the parents had objected to their daughters
studying the text on the grounds of obscenity. The
teachers had said that the book would stay on the
curriculum because of its literary merits. The
students were invited to work in groups to
provide a report for the parent teacher authority
which advised on these matters.
In order to respond to this exercise, the students
had to read the book, had to investigate the
relationship between obscenity and literature (and
possibly the historical and legal precedent), arrive
at some agreement as to what constitutes literary
merit, and then decide how they arrive at a
judgement about literary merit. They had to work
collaboratively, and they had to write a report for
a particular audience—the school governing
body. Finally, one member of each group had to
give a presentation, but they were not told
beforehand which one it would be.
The exercise encouraged the students to develop a
whole range of research-minded skills, such as
question formulation, identifying and
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 19 • documenting evidence, and persuasive
communication skills.
The students enjoyed this learning process,
although when asked if they liked working in this
way, they said ―what way?‖ as they were so used
to it that it did not seem remarkable. This is
because the College spends a lot of time
developing these ways of working and students
learn them from the outset.
Level 1 Psychology
This involved a large class. The traditional three
lectures per week were replaced by one lecture
and two online classes. In the online work done
in groups, students had to investigate a topic and
produce three different interpretations of it.
Initially the online discussions were quite basic,
but as time passed the students were asking more
questions of each other, linking, comparing and
commenting on different postings. By the end of
three weeks discussion of some substance was
taking place. The tutor observed that the quality
of the students‘ contributions improved and their
discussion was eventually closer to second year
quality.
Applied Chemistry Level 2
Here students were given a forensic report of a
fictitious death. They were only given some very
basic information and the scenario was
deliberately very incomplete. The only thing the
students could do was to request lab reports for
more information and these were just made up in
response to students‘ requests. The students thus
had to engage in continual questioning and
problem formulation and be thinking about the
RESEARCH & TEACHING • TDU
• 20 •
Advise:Why You Wasting Money in Costly SEO Tools, Use World's Best Free SEO Tool Ubersuggest.
