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Published Date:06-07-2017
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Design
Research
for Media
Development
A GUIDE FOR PRACTITIONERS
By: In Collaboration with:// about this guide // Principles in Practice
Harnessing Design Research in FATA
This guide features a running case studie to illustrate
how design research can apply to media development.
All examples are drawn from an investigation conducted
in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA)
region of Pakistan in September 2012.
About FATA
Politically, FATA has traditionally
Socially, economically, and politically, Yet opportunities for change are But the region remains media dark,
been ruled, not governed, by
FATA is the least developed region on the horizon. The upcoming 2013 with variable access to mobile
unelected tribal leaders. The region
in Pakistan. Sixty-six percent of the general election will be the first time networks and Internet and tight
is strongly conservative and cultur-
population lives below the poverty that political parties are able to form restrictions on journalists. Although
1
ally isolated, constraints that are
line; its key industries are farm- and operate in FATA, meaning the there has been an increase in media
2
heightened by geographic and
ing, smuggling, and illegal drugs; first chance for FATA communities access and channels in recent years,
security factors. United States mili-
unemployment is estimated at 60 to have their interests represented little is known about the informa-
3
tary operations using unmanned
to 80 percent; and the literacy rate on the national stage. To leverage tion and media behaviors of FATA
aerial vehicles (drones) have tar-
is 22 percent (and 1.5 percent for this moment, independent and communities.
4
geted the region since 2004, in an
females). good quality information about the
attempt to defeat Taliban and Al-
political process will be vital to its
Qaeda militants. Drone strikes have
residents.
killed up to an estimated 3,400
5
people.
6 Design Research for Media Development 7// ABOUT THIS GUIDE // Principles in Practice
HARNESSING DESIGN
RESEARCH IN FATA
Project Background Project Approach
Due to the security restrictions,
the elections? Furthermore, what did
Given the FATA’s communications It was determined that design
Reboot and Internews staff did
they think about politics in Pakistan?
landscape and its population’s low research—a research and analytical
not travel in FATA. Reboot and
And finally, how should informa-
literacy rates, Internews was inter- process that combines ethnograph-
Internews managed field research
tion be presented? What sources of
ested in the potential of interactive ic, journalistic, and systems think-
from Islamabad, and conducted
information were perceived as trust-
voice response (IVR) technology to ing approaches—could help answer
training and synthesis workshops
worthy, and how did people evaluate
get information about political pro- these complex questions, and help
in Islamabad and Peshawar.
the credibility of information?
cesses to FATA communities, particu- Internews identify opportunities to
larly around the upcoming elections. improve the information ecosystem
Internews realized a more nuanced
But as teams began planning such for FATA communities.
The research findings will be
understanding of the information
an initiative, they realized they need-
released in early 2013.
and communications landscape in
ed answers to a few key questions to A design research investigation
the region was necessary to ensure
enable strong program design. was conducted over four weeks
programs would be appropriate and
in September 2012. A team of 10
impactful on the national stage. To
To start, it was critical to understand researchers from FATA conducted
leverage this moment, independent
what were the technology behaviors the fieldwork, with training and man-
and good quality information about
of FATA communities, and whether agement from Reboot. The study
the political process will be vital to
IVR was even a realistic option. And covered 7 agencies in FATA and
its residents. And, in recent years,
beyond the choice of communica- Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and 125
there has been an increase in media
tions channel, what kind of informa- respondents were interviewed.
access and channels within the FATA.
tion did people want? What did FATA
communities already know about
1 Shuja Nawaz and Arnaud De Borchegrave, FATA - A Most Dangerous Place,
(Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2009).
2 Shahid J. Burki, “Economics and Extremism,” DAWN.com, n.d.
3 “FATA: Inside Pakistan’s Tribal Regions,” New America Foundation, n.d.
4 Government of Pakistan, United Nations Children’s Fund, and the World Food Programme, Federally
Administered Tribal Area (FATA) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (Peshawar: Government of Pakistan, 2009)
5 “The Year of the Drone,” Counterterrorism Strategy Initiative, New America Foundation, 2012.
8 Design Research for Media Development 9// INTRODUCING DESIGN RESEARCH
Introducing
Key Principles
of Design Research
1. Understand humans and institutions.
Design The best solutions meet the needs of users, while respecting
their capacities and constraints, and they do so at the
community and institutional levels. Understanding both,
therefore, is key.
2. Discard assumptions.
Research
“Design by ToR (Terms of Reference)” is tough. The best
solutions come from the real world, so learn to recognize
personal biases and assumptions, as well as those of others,
to see the way forward.
3. Remain flexible.
It is impossible to predict the solution (or even the best
path for finding the solution) at the start of a project.
That is why design research is a
Good program design requires
Change is the norm, so be open-minded and adaptive.
valuable and important starting point
two things: empathy for people
for media development. Design
and understanding of place.
4. Consider diverse stakeholders.
research is more than an exercise
Design research is a valuable
A program is only as good as the sum of its parts. Examine
in knowledge gathering; it is a pro-
the needs and capacities of stakeholders along your program
tool to achieve both.
active, rigorous, and intellectual
delivery chain, such as regulators, media outlets, journalists,
process tailored to create concrete
and audiences, to ensure the design accommodates each
Design research is useful whether
programmatic interventions.
of them.
you are designing an iPhone in Palo
Alto or a media development program
Blending practices from ethnography,
5. Be responsible.
in Pakistan. But for projects like
journalism, and systems thinking,
Anticipate and mitigate the unintended negative impacts
the latter—whose designers often
design research helps practitioners
a project may have on communities. From selecting
come from vastly different back-
understand the causes, relationships,
respondents to introducing the research, consider how
grounds than their users, and where
and human dimensions of complex actions and words may impact local dynamics.
the context is extremely complex—
contexts—and then provides tools
developing empathy and under-
to incorporating this knowledge into
standing requires greater effort and
the design of innovative and realistic
unique skillsets.
interventions.
10 Design Research for Media Development 11// INTRODUCING DESIGN RESEARCH
Design research is a process of The process of design is fluid and
discovery, not of verification. It is creative, it is constantly refined
particularly useful in the early stages and adjusted for different contexts—
of a project, where opportunities are design research is similarly versatile.
vast and the paths to seize them To that end, while design research
Design Research is Not....
are unclear. It is a process to discard is inherently valuable for program
assumptions, and a means to design, it can be integrated into
Design research is a powerful tool for understanding complex
design interventions that are truly fit other approaches already used by
human systems and surfacing key factors that are critical for
for context. media development professionals.
program design.
Just as no two contexts are alike,
Because, ultimately, while success- there is no one formula for good
It is not:
ful programs require funding, tech- research and design.
A substitute for quantitative research.
nology, and management, under-
Design research is not intended to yield statistically significant
standing of context is paramount. Beyond the field of media develop-
findings. Yet it complements quantitative research by surfacing
ment, design research has been
key insights that are invisible to less nuanced methods. As nec-
widely utilized to answer a range of
essary, qualitative insights can be probed further for represen-
questions relating to governance
tativeness through survey work.
and international development pro-
Integrate
gramming. These include:
A replacement for stakeholder engagement.
design
Design research emphasizes deep engagement with communi-
research
• How can we design a social
ties and stakeholders with the aim of eliciting data to inform
into M&E.
accountability system to
program design. It is not intended to replace a program’s
maximize citizen engagement
stakeholder consultation and sensitization activities.
in the design and delivery of basic
This guide focuses on the
services, and compel government
applications of design research
A solution for every program.
response based on citizen input?
in program design and develop-
Design research is most useful when the challenge or context
ment, but the process is equally
is new, complex, or involves diverse stakeholders. Certain
• How can we help diverse and often
valuable for M&E efforts.
types of programs, such as infrastructure development or
inaccessible human trafficking
policy advocacy, may demand other approaches, with design
victims find the means to escape
The ability to assess and explain
research playing a secondary, or even non-existent, role.
their situations?
project outcomes in terms of
context is essential to learning—
• How can the international community
particularly when projects fall short.
leverage new technologies to
support good governance,
social cohesion, and economic
development in a country
that has undergone a popular
revolution?
12 Design Research for Media Development 13// INTRODUCING DESIGN RESEARCH
The Design Research Process
There are five key phases in the design research process.
The following chapters will explain each of these in detail,
along with practical advice and case studies.
PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3 PHASE 4 PHASE 5
Define Plan Collect Synthesize Design
Articulate a program’s Develop an intellectual Work to understand Make sense of the Distill findings into program
ultimate objective, and framework for informa- the people the research, and draw design recommendations
define the questions that tion that is needed to program seeks to patterns and insights and guidelines for use by
must be answered to help meet the design serve, and the actors from the data. Ensure the implementing team.
achieve it. Set clear goals challenge, and an that will be serving that findings are It is also helpful to present
to establish boundaries operational plan for them. Dive into the useful and actionable findings in a format
for what falls outside how to get that context. for program design. accessible to wider
immediate relevance or information. audiences to benefit the
current capacity. larger community
of practice.
Design research can and should has its limitations when examining inform programs spread across
be used in conjunction with other complex systems. To design a good areas with geographic variance, or
approaches, such as participatory survey, you need to know what you programs that will be expanding to a
rural appraisal (PRA), social network are looking for and how that information significant scale.
analysis, the Delphi Method, or may manifest in the particular context.
audience research surveys. In fact, Qualitative research, on the other Resources, human and financial,
practitioners will find similarities, or hand, excels at building rich portraits as well as time will also be factors
even shared tools, between some of of a people or place, and at mapping in selecting research approaches.
these approaches. the relationships between people, Thankfully, design research scales
places, cultures, and institutions. well. It can be effective as a small-
In combining research approaches, it But insights surfaced by design scale process as well as a much
is a matter of sequencing and scale. research may merit additional deeper expansive investigation.
Quantitative research, for example, surveying, especially if they will
14 Design Research for Media Development 15Phase 1 // DEFINE
Define the
Challenge
PHASE 1:
These kinds of assumption-based
All development projects
projects risk failure, no matter how
start with a challenge. But too
Define
many times or where else they
often, a project will define that
have worked before, because they
challenge by presupposing a
do not consider how people in a
solution. Design research helps
specific context actually behave or
us start with the right questions.
the unique characteristics of the
environment. Even if a proposed
If, for example, a challenge people
solution, such as the SMS information
face is poor information or media
service, may suit a particular context,
access, practitioners might ask:
it is impossible to know how to design
“How can we support independent
a service that is broadly accessible,
community radio?” or “How might
has locally relevant content, and
we develop an SMS-based informa-
which can be cost-effectively and
tion delivery service?”
sustainably maintained.
16 17Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
Research
Framework
The research framework is a living In practice, priorities tend to shift
Framing and defining a design chal- Once a precise and concise design
document that defines your research from what was originally put on
lenge, therefore, is key for program challenge has been determined, the
themes and questions, but its focus paper. All practitioners know about
design, and for the design research team should be able to determine
will evolve and narrow over time, first the importance of flexibility and
that will inform it. Start from the the information it will need to be
as feedback is gathered from stake- striking a balance between planning
wrong perspective, or with a set of able to tackle the challenge. This is
holders, and then even more so over and operations. The research frame-
assumptions, and you can spend where design research comes in. A
the course of field research. work creates a way to adjust to shift-
your whole project working on the strong solution for any context starts
ing donor and stakeholder priorities,
wrong thing. with a strong understanding of that
While not a record of insights or find- while also keeping the on-the-ground
context. Inspired by the design chal-
ings, it is reflective of an increas- realities in focus.
Thus, a good design challenge lenge, we are now ready to build our
ingly sophisticated understanding of
should: Research Framework.
the context, honing in closer to the
actual truth as the research unfolds.
Speak to a user need.
Over time, more targeted and more
Do not speak to an organizational
detailed questions arise—this is a
need, a technological opportunity, or
good sign.
a donor directive.
Be open-ended in terms of how
that need might be addressed.
It should not predefine a solution.
Include the constraints that the
design needs to satisfy.
These may include meeting certain
timelines, collaborating with certain
Use the
partners, or building upon existing
framework
Research
programming.
to align
Framework
stakeholders.
The complete
It can help stakeholders
Research Framework
develop shared understanding
of the project goals, processes, from the Internews
and expected outcomes. During Pakistan Case Study
check-ins, use it to reflect the can be found at:
www.design.internews.
evolving understanding of the
org/tools.
operational context, and thus
program priorities.
18 Design Research for Media Development 19Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
Principles in Practice
Key Components
of a Research Framework:
Project Objectives.
Specific goals, both concerning the questions to explore
and the projected deliverables based on research findings.
Defining the Challenge: A Collaborative Process
Key Opportunities and Challenges.
From institutional priorities, desk research, and expert
consultations.
for low-literacy users, like many
Guiding Themes and Questions. Coming up with a robust and
FATA populations, and the upcoming
Also grounded in desk research and expert consultations, realistic design challenge was
elections were certainly a factor in
these drive the field research.
no easy task. Our project had
planning timelines.
eight people representing four
Target Respondents and Sampling Plan.
teams from two organizations
Outline of different user and stakeholder groups to consult,
Ultimately, however, the team
and how they will be recruited. spread across four cities (and
agreed to keep the prompt as broad
that is not including travel).
as possible: “Identify opportunities
Methodology.
This is what we did:
to improve information access
Summary of the research methods to be used,
and relevancy for communities in
along with the rationale, role, and specific focus of each.
Based on Internews’ existing work
the FATA.” While technology and
and team members’ experience
Operational Plan.
new media were of interest, they
working in the region, everyone
Field logistics, including locations, timelines, research
were excluded from the challenge
schedule, team composition, and roles. agreed that FATA communities needed
definition to not prematurely bias
better information channels to get
findings. And while Internews had
Question Guides and Scripts.
information about the world, and to
timelines and programming that
Concrete plan for the research team to explore key
share information about themselves.
could be strategically integrated with
themes in respondent interviews.
But there were differing opinions
the project, it wanted to untether
as to how this should be done, and
the research of institutional priorities
what timelines it should be accom-
to truly benefit from the generative
plished within.
nature of design research. The challenge,
therefore, was intentionally free of
Interactive voice response (IVR)
constraints to encourage research
technology showed promise as
that may contribute to the broader
a news and communications tool
development community.
20 Design Research for Media Development 21Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
Principles in Practice
STEP 1:
Map the Issues
To understand a challenge, examine it, systematically, from all angles.
Write down your design challenge, then write down all the questions you
might have to answer to be able to tackle the challenge.
Then, group the questions to determine key themes that will drive the
research.
Determining Key Themes
For information- and media-related research, practitioners
may want to consider:
Trends over time. Contours of trust and influence.
To the extent that trust and We began by defining ‘information
In addition to current attitudes and The work in Pakistan aimed to
influence are relative, dynamic
behaviors, examine longitudinal usage’ and realized we were interested
understand the behaviors
concepts, explore the drivers and
patterns—how have cultural, political,
in the following question:
of FATA communities relating
boundaries of trust. This should
and technological changes impacted
to information usage—a tall
be done within communities, as
user behavior over time? Such a
How are FATA populations access-
well as between communities and order, to be sure.
focus can help anticipate future
ing, sharing, evaluating, and creating
shifts, and allow program designs a) institutions,
Through a mapping exercise, information, and how might their
that accommodate them.
b) diverse information sources,
habits change over the next two
we determined the key themes
and
years?
Given the pace of technological
that the study would focus on.
c) the media.
change, practitioners must under-
To the extent that effective
stand the forces driving change, not
Beyond current habits, we wanted
only how that change is manifest interventions always, at some
to understand the needs, capacities,
today. level, rely on trust, understanding
constraints, and sensitivities that
the nature of trust in a particular
influence the information-seeking
Multiplicity of media.
context is paramount.
and media consumption behaviors
People’s usage of and relationship
of FATA communities.
to media is complex and diverse,
and research should examine
Through a mapping exercise, we
diverse information sources
(formal and informal), as well
determined three key themes that
as the complex, ever-changing
would drive the research, presented
relationships people have to them.
here as an excerpt from the Research
Framework of the Internews Paki-
stan Case Study.
22 Design Research for Media Development 23Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
DEFINING KEY
Principles in Practice
THEMES
Theme 2:
Theme 1:
Impacts of Displacement
Understanding Trust & Influence
What has been the impact of con- how FATA populations access, evalu-
How do FATA communities evaluate not specifically oriented towards
flict and internal displacement on ate, and trust different information
the credibility and trustworthiness disseminating information but that
the information-seeking and media sources and media channels. To the
of different information sources may do so as a secondary activity
behaviors of FATA communities? extent possible, the research will
and media channels, and how do or naturally as a result their role in
map how these attitudes and behav-
these factors impact the influence communities (e.g. service providers
Since 2007, FATA has experienced iors change over people’s timeline of
and reach of different source and such as schools or clinics where
significant population migration as displacement.
channels? people gather, or entrepreneurs that
a result of government operations
wield economic influence). There
against non-state armed actors and
Both formal (e.g. newspapers) and will be a specific focus on emerging
sectarian violence. The research
informal (e.g. community leaders) sources of information.
seeks to understand how migration
sources of information will be
and displacement has impacted
considered, as well as sources
Key questions include: Key questions include:
• What are the social norms around gathering, sharing, • How do displaced FATA populations access information?
and assessing different types of information? How does this compare to communities that still reside within the FATA?
• What are the metrics FATA communities use to determine • How does the experience of migration and displacement,
whether a particular piece of news or information—or a source— both conflict-related and seasonal or work-related, impact how FATA
is credible, trustworthy, or worth passing on to their networks? populations evaluate the credibility and importance of different
media sources?
• Specifically, what are the uses and perceptions of secular versus
religious information sources? • How does information pass to and from FATA residents and
connections outside?
• Based on the above metrics, along with reported and observed user
experiences, can we map the relative influence and reach of different
types of information sources among FATA communities, how information flows
between them, and how these patterns have changed over time?
24
24 Design Research for Media Development 25Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
DEFINING KEY
THEMES
STEP 2:
Review Existing Research
Theme 3: Desktop research is a critical early As part of the literature review,
Usage of New Media & Technology input to the design research process. include work in the specific geo-
Literature reviews, expert consulta- graphic context as well as the sector
As technology is vastly changing Beyond analyzing indicators such tions, and discussions with institutional (and review both case studies and
the communications landscape in as technology penetration (e.g. partners ground the potential future evaluations).
Pakistan, and will continue to do so, radio, television, or mobile), size of in the wisdom of what has been
the research will have a particular audiences for particular programs, done before. In consultations, seek out three
focus on perceptions of and behaviors dollars invested in specific channels, different types of experts:
around new media and digital com- or other market metrics, the study Desk research sets the stage for
1) Operational experts,
munications tools. will examine the human factors that design. With such an expansive
2) subject matter experts, and
impact technology behaviors and body of innovation and achievement
Given the potential of information choices. in the field of development, any work
3) institutional experts.
and communications technologies should build on what has been done.
(ICTs) to enable easier and broader
access to information, the study
will seek to understand specific
technologies that have high potential
to reach FATA communities, as well
as challenges around and limitations
Operational experts have worked extensively in a
of ICTs.
geographic context. Their insight will be especially key
in planning the logistics of a research trip and developing
a risk management plan.
Key questions include:
Subject Matter experts have implemented or evaluated
• What are current behaviors around the use of technology to access, share, similar or complementary programs, and can share their
create, and evaluate information? Can we extrapolate larger trends around opinions and understanding about how and why their
technology usage beyond specific channels and media sources? research and program approaches succeeded (or fell short).
• How does literacy, in all its forms — textual, technological, and media —
Institutional experts from organizations, donors, or other
impact usage of technology among FATA populations? What are ways
stakeholders can help focus goals and deliverables. They can
in which FATA communities currently circumvent their own capacity
help understand what outputs are most useful and feasible,
constraints around technology to get and share the information they need?
and how best to present them.
• What are the threats to the use of technology, and how do FATA
populations respond? Does the cultural appropriateness of technology
vary with its intended purpose (e.g. mobile phones for communications
versus mobile phones for listening to music or the news)?
26 Design Research for Media Development 27Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
Principles in Practice
Consulting Experts
Before fieldwork, the team consulted with experts on key project
Role
Category Affiliation Profile
themes and to gain better understanding of the operational
context. After fieldwork, experts helped interpret, analyze, and validate
Subject Academic University DC-based Pakistan expert
research findings. This is redacted sample of those consulted.
Matter Researcher with on-the-ground perspective,
with focus on political stability
and Islamic politics. Advise on
research framing questions,
and institutional interests.
Category Role Affiliation Profile
Subject Co-Founders Local ICT4D Islamabad-based technology
Operational M&E Donor Well versed in operating M&E
Matter Firm and civic participation firm that
Officer Organization programs in FATA, familiar
has deployed mobile-based
with Internews. Advise on
information services across
operational and risk planning
Pakistan. Advise on technology
and management.
behaviors and service design.
Operational Chief of International Extensive on-the-ground experi-
Subject M&E International Worked with Internews on research
Party Development ence in FATA, and with media-
Matter Program Development and M&E in several countries.
Contractor related programming. Advise on
Advisor Contractor Advised on complementary and
operations, logistics, and security.
adjacent research initiatives to
draw from and feed into.
Operational/ CEO Local Works on audience research with
Subject Research Internews in Pakistan. Extensive
Institutional Senior Donor Deep understanding of media
Matter Organization experience media behavior in the
Leadership Organization landscape in FATA, has managed
region. Advise on gaps in current
Internews programming. Advised
research.
on donor priorities and interests
in the region and for the research.
Operational/ Various Staff Local Experts in freedom of information
Subject Civil Society and expression issues in Pakistan,
Institutional Various Across Advised on Internews’ needs and
Matter Organization and the cultural and political fac-
Internews Operational goals around research, perceived
tors that influence the conversation.
Staff and Country opportunities and gaps in current
Advise on research questions, and
Teams research, program development,
the role of technology in shaping
and M&E processes to help refine
the information landscape.
outputs.
Subject Journalist Various news Pakistani journalist with extensive
Matter outlets experience covering FATA and
Given the aims of the research, local or locally based experts
international news. Advised on
were prioritized over international ones. Institutional and international
research framing, questions,
perspectives still very much informed the research to ensure it would
and managing sensitivities.
be useful to a range of stakeholders.
28 Design Research for Media Development 29Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
Their values and needs will impact This list becomes your respondent
STEP 3:
program outcomes, thus their per- group, and each group’s needs and
Identify the Stakeholders
spectives must be understood and challenges will need to be addressed.
accommodated, as appropriate, in While the map to it is not yet clear,
Media development seeks to improve human livelihoods through information.
the program design. the places where these many view-
So, it is logical that humans are at the heart of good program design. They
points and needs intersect is where
both inform and inspire program designs, and their needs are the metrics by
List all the stakeholders who the the most sustainable interventions
which programs should be evaluated.
program must consider. Starting will be found. And be realistic: There
with the end-users, list all those who will be actors your program will not
Yet there are many actors that impact the design, delivery,
influence their behavior, as relevant have access to or influence over.
and ultimate effectiveness of a program.
to the program: What people and Still include them as variables to be
institutions do they interact with? aware of, and to recognize the gaps
These may include:
Which other stakeholders have the in your own data.
End-Users Community Leaders
greatest impact on their actions? Do
Target individuals and communities Individuals with both formal and
this for all the stakeholders identified. Do not get intimidated. This process
(often called “beneficiaries”) the informal distinctions as leaders
can be overwhelming. Any map of
activities and outputs of the within their community and that
Think through the perspective of the conflicting interests of dozens
program are intended to benefit. have particular influence.
each listed stakeholder: How do of people and institutions will look
Contextual Influencers
Service Providers
they impact the experience of the unsystematic and unsustainable.
Individuals or organizations that
Individuals and organizations that end-users? What are their priori- Getting through the mess is what
have impact or control over the
serve as functional touchpoints for
ties and goals? How do they view the research is for.
environment or the individuals
reaching end-users—not all may be
the other stakeholders on the list?
in which a program is targeting
formally recognized as information
How can they contribute to program
sources or service providers. These
Policymakers
objectives?
may include radio stations, primary
Creators of the environments in
schools, or agricultural extension
which a program exists through
workers.
legislation, rhetoric, or other
forms of power.
Administrators
Functional managers that oversee
Predict users’
Institutional Partners
the actions of service providers.
needs, not Know who to
Institutional donors, private sector
partners, or other organizations solutions. include when.
that define, resource, and influence
program design.
Think broadly and fundamentally Naturally, stakeholders include
about users’ needs. For example, funders, partners, colleagues,
users may not need “a radio and others who are contributing
station” or “better information”; to or otherwise directing the
rather, they may need security, work. Include their perspectives
stability, or connection with when planning the research,
loved ones, all of which can be but once fieldwork begins,
addressed in multiple ways. your allegiance is to end-users.
30 Design Research for Media Development 31Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
Principles in Practice
A Note on Sample Size
In the age of “Big Data”, it is hard to resist the idea
that survey data, and lots of it, is better. It is true that
quantitative data is a valuable tool for many aspects
of program design: Large datasets can help identify
sweeping trends across a community, or determine how
human well-being has changed in a region over time.
The strength of such analysis comes in part, however, by
Defining Target Respondents
reducing nuance.
To complement data analysis, design research is
intrinsically about understanding complexity through
Pakistan has a vigorous and diverse media ecosystem, and
human nuance. This means aiming for a focused and
below are the stakeholder groups that our research targeted,
manageable sample size. The goal is not statistical
representation; there is no need to touch every potential as well as the target percentage of the overall respondent
type of stakeholder relevant to the program. Rather, the
population for each group, based on our mapping exercise.
goal is enough representativeness to draw meaningful
insights on patterns of behavior and context.
Early on, we agreed that the focus Further, researching information
The most valuable insights often come from making would, first and foremost, be on distributors (5%) and regula-
surprising thematic connections between seemingly information consumers (60%): FATA tors (5%) would help Internews
disparate behaviors and cultural norms. These can only communities who seek information identify the opportunities and
be generated by human evaluation of collected data. through diverse outlets. Under- challenges for information dis-
Further, as the best analysts and program designers are standing their behaviors and atti- semination. Finally, media-related
usually those that conducted the field research, their tudes—and their underlying ratio- organizations (5%) including NGOs,
facility with the entire data set is important. As powerful nale—and capacities would allow watchdog groups, and others will
as large data sets can be when run through NVivo or Atlas Internews to develop content and help guide the research process,
TI, human creativity is also a powerful tool—and for it to programs that will reach and be both in data collection as well as
work well, the capacities of human memory should be understood by these populations. analysis. On the following pages is
considered when determining sample size. Understanding a broad range a condensed version of the study’s
of information producers (25%), stakeholder analyses:
both formal and informal, and the
motivations, capacities, and self-
conceptions of each actor would be
critical to mapping information flows
and networks of influence and trust
among FATA communities.
32 Design Research for Media Development 33Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
DEFINING TARGET Principles in Practice
RESPONDENTS
60% 25%
Information Consumers Information Producers
Key Questions
Examples of Entities Examples of Entities Key Questions
• FATA populations in and outside of • How do they access, share, and
• Journalists: local and foreign • What are their goals in participating
FATA, a diverse sample in terms of assign value to different types
in the information landscape, and
• Bloggers
gender, age, economic background, of information?
in producing information?
education, location (both rural and • Traditional leadership
• What is the role of information/news
• How does each actor see its role,
urban)
in the context of life in FATA? (Does • Informal community leaders
and how does it compare to other
• Particular attention will be paid to it play role in creating change? How
actors in the ecosystem?
• Civil society and/or special interest
FATA populations perceive informa-
a) influencers, as their habits and groups (e.g. youth organizations,
• What sort of training have they had
tion/media? What types of informa-
choices have outsize impact on NGOs, fundamentalist groups)
to produce information, and what are
tion do they want to access?)
their larger communities
the standards they hold themselves
• Religious media outlets (e.g. mullah
• What is their access to and usage of
to?
b) youth, as their behaviors can radio) and leaders (e.g. imams)
technology?
suggest trends in information
• What is their sense of the security
• Government officials
consumption and technology • How do they evaluate the credibility
issues involved in their work?
(e.g. Political Agents)
habits and trustworthiness of information
How do they mitigate security risks?
• Government and state-controlled
sources?
c) low-literacy populations, as ICTs
• What other information sources
media outlets (Pakistani and foreign)
have the potential to uniquely • For influencers: What is the
do they draw upon and use?
• University journalism departments
serve them relationship between these individu-
• What do they see as the biggest
als and those they influence? How
• Press clubs
constraints, for themselves and
do they gain and use their influence?
their listeners/viewers?
• Political parties and activists
Note: It may be difficult to access
How does information and com-
female populations. Little is known
• How do they evaluate their success
munication impact or facilitate their • Businesses and/or entrepreneurs
about this demographic in the
as information producers?
influence?
region, much less specific media
• For youth: What are the tools they • For businesses: How do they
and technology behaviors.
= May not be possible
approach marketing in FATA, and
use to access and share information?
is it any different from how they
• For low-literacy populations:
advertise in the rest of the country?
What are the ways in which they are
accessing information, despite their
lack of literacy?
34 Design Research for Media Development 35Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Framework
DEFINING TARGET Principles in Practice
RESPONDENTS
5% 5% 5%
Information Information Media-Related
Distributors Regulators/Controllers Organizations
Examples of Entities Examples of Entities Examples of Entities
• Media groups • Government agencies • NGOs and civil society groups
(e.g. Jang, Dawn, Lakson) (e.g. FATA Secretariat, Pakistan (e.g. Rural Media Network Pakistan,
Pakistan Centre for Development
Broadcasting Corporation, Pakistan
• Local media outlets
Communication)
Electronic Media Regulatory Authority)
• International media outlets
• Journalist unions
• Traditional leadership and tribal
• Television broadcasters
elders
• Crowdsourced content sites
(e.g. Hosh Media)
• Aggregated content sites
(e.g. Teabreak)
Key Questions Key Questions Key Questions
• How do they determine the • What are their key goals and • What do they think are the key For this study, it was determined
content that they will include in concerns regarding to the production opportunities and challenges in
that perspectives of information
their outlet? How do they prioritize and dissemination of information? securing greater information
distributors, media-related
different pieces of content, and access and better quality of
organizations, and information
• How do they determine what types
choose what to feature? information for FATA communities?
regulators/controllers would
of information can or cannot be
largely be drawn from existing
• Do they track responses to the shared, and how they will be shared? • What are their thoughts on our
research and expert consultations.
content they put out? If so, what research framing and plan, as well
Field research would largely target
tends to be more/less popular? as our findings/analyses?
information consumers
Do they have ideas as to why?
and producers.
36 Design Research for Media Development 37Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Methods
Research
Methods
Many instruments are available to Naturally, practitioners must choose
help researchers for getting a holistic instruments based on what is fea-
view of a target community. sible in the environment. Consider
The Value of Variety
culture as well as security, timelines,
Group interviews provide a broad and other challenges.
Any research program worth its salt will use several
but basic understanding of key
different instruments. Multiple methods can help
research themes, and surface Over time, the methods used may
researchers triangulate data surfaced by different tools
threads that require further probing. change, either to focus on an
and address the inherent deficiencies within each tool,
emerging theme or to overcome
helping overcome research bias.
Individual, in-context depth challenges (of bias, logistics, or
interviews allow a deeper under- other) that crop up in the field. Often,
Everyone carries biases, and different instruments surface
standing of people’s frustrations, a discovery in the course of research
different biases in both researchers and respondents. For
vhopes, and day-to-day lives, especial- makes one or more instruments
example, due to natural social dynamics, respondents
ly when used over time. obsolete; for example, a service
in a group interview may be eager to appear more pious,
trial of a government information
more hard-working, or otherwise impress each other with
During a home stay, as the guest line is impossible if the phone line
their answers; individual follow-up interviews may elicit
of a respondent, researchers gain has been shut down for the past six
more self-reflective answers. Similarly, during an in-depth
greater empathy and insights into months. Governments and devel-
interview, a respondent may be embarrassed to admit
how people think and operate, as opment organizations do not always
challenges they have experienced in using a service, for
social barriers are broken down have updated information on the
fear of appearing incompetent, but a service trial or an
through sustained engagement. service availability, especially for
observation of that same person using the service can
rural areas, so plan accordingly and
raise these frustrations loudly and clearly.
Service trials yield first-hand expe - remain flexible.
rience of how programs and services
Using several instruments helps correlate findings, check
work—and thus insights about the
biases, and better understand the subtext of people’s
relationship between institutions
answers.
and people—which is critical for
effective program design.
Keep it
interesting.
The common thread to all of these
instruments is immersion. Design
Always question whether a
research tools open structured space
research tool is the right tool for
where researchers can discuss,
the situation, and whether the
observe, test, experience, and
mix keeps things engaging for
understand the mechanics and
the team. Research should be
stimulating, and using a range
emotions of daily life in the way that
of tools help unlock creativity,
respondents do.
which is critical for program design.
38 Design Research for Media Development 39Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Methods
Research Tools
GROUP INDIVIDUAL
INTERVIEWS DEPTH INTERVIEWS
Facilitated discussions with a Semi-structured conversations that
group of respondents. Respondents probe into an individual’s attitudes
may be grouped for any number of and thought processes. Best when
reasons: Similar demographics or conducted in private and in a setting
profiles, or diverse viewpoints. that respondent is comfortable with,
such as their home or workplace.
Used To: Challenges:
Used To: Challenges:
• Gain a broad understanding of • Group environments will impact • Gain a deep and nuanced under- • Getting rich data is time consuming.
a new issue area and uncover respondents’ responses. The desire standing of how a person thinks and The team may have to visit a respon-
behaves. dent several times to establish the
key themes to probe further. to appear in a certain light amongst
ones peers can influence answers. trust required for them to speak
• Understand the dynamics within • Learn about the environments in
openly and honestly.
which respondents live, work, and play.
a community, quickly profile • Certain individuals may dominate,
• People may not want to reveal their
several individuals, and identify and if they have some kind of
• Develop relationships with potential
respondents to follow up with at formal or informal status within true feelings or may simply misreport
target users, with whom the team can
greater depth. the community, their presence may details for any number of reasons.
return to help design, prototype, and
prevent others from speaking their Thus, it is important to validate
• Establish shared research test solutions.
findings across several respondents.
minds.
experiences and common
reference points among the team.
Requires:
• A private setting to minimize the
Requires:
influence of other people.
• A facilitator who is socially Be
Keep it
• A significant amount of time,
perceptive, firm, able to synthesize
inclusive.
small.
at least one hour.
quickly, and has the ability to spark
• A skilled interviewer that has deep
and sustain discussion.
For individual interviews,
The value of group interviews di-
familiarity with the research
there should be ideally one or
minishes if there are more than 10
topics, and ideally an accompanying
respondents. But when entering a two, and certainly no more than
note-taker/photographer.
new context, group interviews that three researchers, present.
are open to all signals interest in
Any larger a group and it can
all perspectives, and helps diffuse
become intimidating for the
tension when specific individuals
are chosen for interviews. respondent.
40 Design Research for Media Development 41Phase 1 // DEFINE // Research Methods
OBSERVATION HOME STAYS
Observing the activities in a Extended (and usually overnight)
particular context, or the actions stays in the homes of your target
of an individual or group of users, where interview and
individuals, to gain insight into observation methods integrate
the subtle forces that shape a with natural social interaction.
place or a people.
Used To: Challenges: Used To: Challenges:
• Gain personal, experiential under- • Time constraints often do not allow for • Deepen understanding of a target • Homestays can raise expectations
standing of a context, community, long-term observation—only when the user group by observing the finer among respondents—after living for
or individual helps build an intuition researcher starts getting bored do they details and nuances of their lives. several days (or even a single night)
about that context; this then enables start noticing the minute contextual People tend to discard with pretenses with someone, the line between
you to make better design decisions insights that are most revealing. and act more naturally the longer a researcher and respondent can blur.
for that context. Yet project timelines rarely afford the guest spends with them. It is critical to address expectations
space for a team member to ‘grow upfront, before the interaction begins.
• Identify otherwise unarticulated needs • Achieve a more holistic understanding
bored’. Thus, researchers must be
and actions that may be subconscious of community dynamics. By living in a • There may be personal risks to the
constant, vigilant observers that are
to respondents themselves; what community for several days, 24 hours researcher: Depending on the con-
attuned to, and documenting, the ebbs
people think they do is often different a day, greater exposure to diverse texts, there may be health concerns
and flows of the environment.
from what they actually do. rituals and opportunities for engage- (e.g. hygiene, food preparation) and
ment will present themselves. security challenges, so heed the
advice of the local team.
Requires:
Requires:
• Patience. Observation takes a long
time. It is impossible to visit a hospital • A high degree of sensitivity to how
Try
for an hour and understand all that your presence may impact your hosts.
shadowing.
happens in that environment, and why. The presence of a guest can be a
financial and even emotional burden,
• Confidence. Observation requires
in low-income communities. Thus,
Shadowing is much like Observa-
researchers to trust their own instincts,
be sensitive to your hosts’ cues, and
and to believe their own insights have tion—it requires immersion and the
compensate for any inconvenience
value. Such confidence grows with focused study of people. Unlike
you pose (e.g. bringing food as a gift)
Observation, Shadowing asks users
experience.
or understanding when to abandon
to be active participants in the
(e.g. if it seems that it is straining the
research process by “thinking out
family’s resources and energy).
loud”; that is, by articulating their
thoughts as they conduct actions.
While an imperfect window into the
human mind, it yields oft hard-to-
get insights into factors that direct
or influence behavior.
42 Design Research for Media Development 43
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