technical writing how to write instructions and how technical writing is different from general writing
Dr.KiaraSimpson,United States,Researcher
Published Date:05-07-2017
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HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page ix
Preface
Like previous editions, the ninth edition of the Handbook of Technical
Writing is a comprehensive, easy-access guide to all aspects of technical
communication in the classroom and on the job. It places writing in a
real-world context with quick reference to hundreds of business writing
topics and scores of model documents and visuals. Meeting the needs
of today’s writers, the ninth edition includes expanded coverage of au-
dience and context and reflects the impact that e-mail and other tech-
nology have had on workplace communication. This comprehensive
reference tool is accompanied by a robust Web site that works together
with the text to offer expanded resources online.
Helpful Features
The ESL Tips boxes throughout the book offer special advice for multi-
lingual writers. In addition, the Contents by Topic on the inside front
cover includes a list of entries—ESL Trouble Spots—that may be of
particular interest to nonnative speakers of English.
Digital Tips and Web Links boxes direct readers to specific, related
resources on the companion Web site. The Digital Tips in the book sug-
gest ways to use technology to simplify complex writing tasks, such
as incorporating track changes and creating styles and templates. Ex-
panded Digital Tips on the Web site offer step-by-step instructions for
completing each task. Web Links in the book point students to related
resources on the companion site, such as model documents, tutorials,
and links to hundreds of useful, related Web sites.
Ethics Notes throughout the text highlight the ethical concerns of
today’s technical writers and offer advice for dealing with these con-
cerns. A thorough discussion of copyright and plagiarism clarifies what
plagiarism is in the digital age and highlights the ethical aspects of using
and documenting sources appropriately.
New to This Edition
As mentioned above, our focus in revising the Handbook for this edi-
tion has been to address the impact that technology has had on work-
place communication. We have updated our coverage of correspon-
dence and other entries throughout the book to show that there is often
more than one appropriate medium for a particular message. A report,
for example, can be sent as a hard copy, an e-mail attachment, or an
ixHTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page x
x Preface
e-mail itself. To address this issue, we have expanded our rhetorical ad-
vice on analyzing context and audience and have added new informa-
tion on instant messaging, blogs, and other means by which today’s
writers communicate. We have also thoroughly updated coverage of
grammar, usage, and style, and have made the following additional im-
provements:
• Expanded coverage of the latest types of writing for the Web
discusses FAQs and blogs as forms of collaborative writing and
promotion. A new entry on content management suggests how
writers can use this technology to electronically access, share,
and revise a wide variety of digital forms.
• New information on environmental-impact statements reflects
current environmental policy and ethics. Covering the scope,
language, and organization of these statements, the new entry
features a link to the Environmental Protection Agency Web site
and a full-length example.
• A new entry on repurposing explains how writers can use content
for multiple purposes and audiences by adapting it for different
contexts and mediums.
• Detailed job-search entries discuss social-networking Web sites
such as MySpace and Facebook and their relationship to current
job-search issues.
• Updated coverage of research and documentation helps students
find, use, and integrate sources effectively in their writing. Real-
world documentation models and a visual guide to citing sources
make this challenging topic more accessible.
• Updated Digital Tips throughout the book focus on using technol-
ogy to assist with a variety of writing tasks, such as using wikis for
collaborative documents and conducting meetings from remote
locations.
• New and updated sample documents and visuals reflect the promi-
nence of e-mail in the workplace. Other updated visuals include
charts, graphs, drawings, tables, internationally recognized sym-
bols, illustrated descriptions and instructions, brochure and
newsletter pages, presentation slides, and more.
• An updated companion Web site at bedfordstmartins.com/
alredtech helps instructors take advantage of the Handbook’s
potential as a text for face-to-face, online, or hybrid classes by of-
fering lesson plans, handouts, teaching tips, and assignment ideas.
For students, the Web site includes additional sample documents,
useful tutorials, expanded Digital Tips, and links to hundreds of
useful Web sites keyed to the Handbook’s main entries.10996_fm01.qxp 7/8/09 9:20 AM Page xi
Preface xi
How to Use This Book
The Handbook of Technical Writing is made up of alphabetically or-
ganized entries with color tabs. Within each entry, underlined cross-
references such as “formal reports” link readers to related entries that
contain further information. Many entries present advice and guidelines
in the form of convenient Writer’s Checklists.
The Handbook’s alphabetical organization enables readers to find
specific topics quickly and easily; however, readers with general ques-
tions will discover several alternate ways to find information in the book
and on its companion Web site at bedfordstmartins.com/alredtech.
• Contents by Topic. The complete Contents by Topic on the inside
front cover groups the alphabetical entries into topic categories.
This topical key can help a writer focusing on a specific task or
problem browse all related entries; it is also useful for instructors
who want to correlate the Handbook with standard textbooks or
their own course materials.
• Commonly Misused Words and Phrases. The list of Commonly
Misused Words and Phrases on pages 627–28 extends the Con-
tents by Topic by listing all the usage entries, which appear in
italics throughout the book.
• Model Documents and Figures by Topic. The topically organized
list of model documents and figures on the inside back cover makes
it easier to browse the book’s most commonly referenced sample
documents and visuals to find specific examples of technical com-
munication genres.
• Checklist of the Writing Process. The checklist on pages xxiii–xxiv
helps readers reference key entries in a sequence useful for plan-
ning and carrying out a writing project.
• Comprehensive Index. The Index lists all the topics covered in the
book, including subtopics within the main entries in the alphabeti-
cal arrangement.
Acknowledgments
For their invaluable comments and suggestions for this edition of
Handbook of Technical Writing, we thank the following reviewers who
responded to our questionnaire: Dana Anderson, Indiana University,
Bloomington; Daniel Ding, Ferris State University; Daniel Fitzstephens,
University of Colorado; Karen Griggs, Indiana University–Purdue Uni-
versity, Fort Wayne; Lila M. Harper, Central Washington University;
Douglas Jerolimov, University of Virginia; John F. Lee, University of
Texas at San Antonio; Joseph P. McCallus, Columbus State University;
Barbara J. McCleary, University of Hartford; Laura Osborne, Stephen10996_fm01.qxp 7/8/09 9:20 AM Page xii
xii Preface
F. Austin State University; Suzanne Kesler Rumsey, Indiana University–
Purdue University, Fort Wayne; Michael Stephans, Bloomsburg Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania; Babette Wald, California State University,
Dominguez Hills; Paul Walker, Northern Arizona University; and
Thomas L. Warren, Oklahoma State University.
For their helpful reviews of the model documents, we thank Patricia
C. Click, University of Virginia; Barbara D’Angelo, Arizona State Uni-
versity; Karen Gookin, Central Washington University; Dale Jacobson,
University of North Dakota; Nancy Nygaard, University of Wisconsin–
Milwaukee; and Linda Van Buskirk, Cornell University.
We owe special thanks to Michelle M. Schoenecker, University of
Wisconsin–Milwaukee, for her outstanding contribution to the ninth
edition, especially for her work on the entries “blogs,” “FAQs,” and
“repurposing.” Michelle’s workplace experience and her graduate stud-
ies in professional writing were invaluable—her keen analysis and
cheerful perspective brought fresh energy to the project.
We are indebted to Kenneth J. Cook, President, Ken Cook Co., for
his ongoing support of this and earlier editions. For this edition, we
thank especially Melissa Marney, Marketing Coordinator, and Wendy
Ballard, Technical Writer, both of Ken Cook Co.
We thank Dave Clark, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, and
Matthias Jonas, Manpower Inc., for developing the entry “content
management.” Thanks as well go to Stuart Selber, Pennsylvania State
University, for his review and advice for the entry “repurposing.” We
appreciate the help of Gail M. Boviall, Department of Mathematical
Sciences at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, for her advice on
the entry “mathematical equations.”
We appreciate Rebekka Andersen and Richard Hay, University of
Wisconsin–Milwaukee, for their continuing work on “documenting
sources.” Thanks especially to Sara Eaton Gaunt for her excellent work
in updating this complicated section. Thanks also go to Erik Thelen,
Marquette University, and Mohan Limaye, Boise State University, for
their helpful advice and counsel. In addition, we are very much in-
debted to the many reviewers and contributors not named here who
helped us shape the first eight editions.
We wish to thank Bedford/St. Martin’s for supporting this book, es-
pecially Joan Feinberg, President, and Karen Henry, Editor in Chief. We
are grateful to Emily Berleth, Manager of Publishing Services at Bed-
ford/St. Martin’s, and Herb Nolan of Books By Design for their pa-
tience and expert guidance. Finally, we wish to thank Amy Hurd
Gershman and Rachel Goldberg, our developmental editors at Bed-
ford/St. Martin’s, whose professionalism and collegiality helped pro-
duce an outstanding edition.
We offer heartfelt thanks to Barbara Brusaw for her patience and
time spent preparing the manuscript for the first five editions. We also10996_fm01.qxp 7/8/09 9:20 AM Page xiii
Preface xiii
gratefully acknowledge the ongoing contributions of many students and
instructors at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Finally, special
thanks go to Janice Alred for her many hours of substantive assistance
and for continuing to hold everything together.
G. J. A.
C. T. B.
W. E. O.HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xv
Five Steps to Successful Writing
Successful writing on the job is not the product of inspiration, nor is it
merely the spoken word converted to print; it is the result of knowing
how to structure information using both text and design to achieve an
intended purpose for a clearly defined audience. The best way to ensure
that your writing will succeed—whether it is in the form of a memo, a
résumé, a proposal, or a Web page—is to approach writing using the
following steps:
1. Preparation
2. Research
3. Organization
4. Writing
5. Revision
You will very likely need to follow those steps consciously—even self-
consciously—at first. The same is true the first time you use new soft-
ware, interview a candidate for a job, or chair a committee meeting.
With practice, the steps become nearly automatic. That is not to suggest
that writing becomes easy. It does not. However, the easiest and most
efficient way to write effectively is to do it systematically.
As you master the five steps, keep in mind that they are interrelated
and often overlap. For example, your readers’ needs and your purpose,
which you determine in step 1, will affect decisions you make in subse-
quent steps. You may also need to retrace steps. When you conduct re-
search, for example, you may realize that you need to revise your initial
understanding of the document’s purpose and audience. Similarly, when
you begin to organize, you may discover the need to return to the re-
search step to gather more information.
The time required for each step varies with different writing tasks.
When writing an informal memo, for example, you might follow the
first three steps (preparation, research, and organization) by simply list-
ing the points in the order you want to cover them. In such situations,
you gather and organize information in your mind as you consider your
purpose and audience. For a formal report, the first three steps require
well-organized research, careful note-taking, and detailed outlining. For
a routine e-mail message to a coworker, the first four steps merge as you
type the information onto the screen. In short, the five steps expand,
contract, and at times must be repeated to fit the complexity or context
of the writing task.
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xvi Five Steps to Successful Writing
Dividing the writing process into steps is especially useful for col-
laborative writing, in which you typically divide work among team
members, keep track of a project, and save time by not duplicating ef-
fort. For details on collaborating with others and using electronic tools
to help you manage the process, see collaborative writing.
Preparation
Writing, like most professional tasks, requires solid preparation. In fact,
adequate preparation is as important as writing a draft. In preparation
for writing, your goal is to accomplish the following four major tasks:
• Establish your primary purpose.
• Assess your audience (or readers) and the context.
• Determine the scope of your coverage.
• Select the appropriate medium.
Establishing Your Purpose. To establish your primary purpose simply
ask yourself what you want your readers to know, to believe, or to be
able to do after they have finished reading what you have written. Be
precise. Often a writer states a purpose so broadly that it is almost use-
less. A purpose such as “to report on possible locations for a new re-
search facility” is too general. However, “to compare the relative
advantages of Paris, Singapore, and San Francisco as possible locations
for a new research facility so that top management can choose the best
location” is a purpose statement that can guide you throughout the
writing process. In addition to your primary purpose, consider possible
secondary purposes for your document. For example, a secondary pur-
pose of the research-facilities report might be to make corporate execu-
tive readers aware of the staffing needs of the new facility so that they
can ensure its smooth operation regardless of the location selected.
Assessing Your Audience and Context. The next task is to assess your
audience. Again, be precise and ask key questions. Who exactly is your
reader? Do you have multiple readers? Who needs to see or to use the
document? What are your readers’ needs in relation to your subject?
What are their attitudes about the subject? (Skeptical? Supportive?
Anxious? Bored?) What do your readers already know about the sub-
ject? Should you define basic terminology, or will such definitions
merely bore, or even impede, your readers? Are you communicating
with international readers and therefore dealing with issues inherent in
global communication?
In this discussion, as elsewhere throughout this book, words and phrases underlined
and set in an alternate typeface refer to specific alphabetical entries.HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xvii
Five Steps to Successful Writing xvii
For the research-facilities report, the readers are described as “top
management.” Who is included in that category? Will one of the people
evaluating the report be the Human Resources Manager? If so, that
person likely would be interested in the availability of qualified profes-
sionals as well as in the presence of training, housing, and perhaps even
recreational facilities available to potential employees in each city. The
Purchasing Manager would be concerned about available sources for
materials needed by the facility. The Marketing Manager would give
priority to the facility’s proximity to the primary markets for its prod-
ucts and services and the transportation options that are available. The
Chief Financial Officer would want to know about land and building
costs and about each country’s tax structure. The Chief Executive Offi-
cer would be interested in all this information and perhaps more. As
with this example, many workplace documents have audiences com-
posed of multiple readers. You can accommodate their needs through
one of a number of approaches described in the entry audience.
In addition to knowing the needs and interests of your readers,
learn as much as you can about the context. Simply put, context is the
environment or circumstances in which writers produce documents and
within which readers interpret their meanings. Everything is written in
a context, as illustrated in many entries and examples throughout this
book. To determine the effect of context on the research-facilities re-
port, you might ask both specific and general questions about the situa-
tion and about your readers’ backgrounds: Is this the company’s first
new facility, or has the company chosen locations for new facilities be-
fore? Have the readers visited all three cities? Have they already seen
other reports on the three cities? What is the corporate culture in which
your readers work, and what are its key values? What specific factors,
ESL TIPS for Considering Audiences
In the United States, conciseness, coherence, and clarity characterize
good writing. Make sure readers can follow your writing, and say only
what is necessary to communicate your message. Of course, no writing
style is inherently better than another, but to be a successful writer in
any language, you must understand the cultural values that underlie the
language in which you are writing. See also awkwardness, copyright,
global communication, English as a second language, and plagiarism.
Throughout this book we have included ESL Tips boxes like this one
with information that may be particularly helpful to nonnative speak-
ers of English. See the Contents by Topic on the inside front cover for
listings of ESL Tips and ESL Trouble Spots, entries that may be of partic-
ular help to ESL writers.HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xviii
xviii Five Steps to Successful Writing
such as competition, finance, and regulation, are recognized as impor-
tant within the organization?
Determining the Scope. Determining your purpose and assessing your
readers and context will help you decide what to include and what not
to include in your writing. Those decisions establish the scope of your
writing project. If you do not clearly define the scope, you will spend
needless hours on research because you will not be sure what kind of
information you need or even how much. Given the purpose and audi-
ence established for the report on facility locations, the scope would in-
clude such information as land and building costs, available labor force,
cultural issues, transportation options, and proximity to suppliers.
However, it probably would not include the early history of the cities
being considered or their climate and geological features, unless those
aspects were directly related to your particular business.
Selecting the Medium. Finally, you need to determine the most appro-
priate medium for communicating your message. Professionals on the
job face a wide array of options—from e-mail, fax, voice mail, video-
conferencing, and Web sites to more traditional means like letters,
memos, reports, telephone calls, and face-to-face meetings.
The most important considerations in selecting the appropriate
medium are the audience and the purpose of the communication. For
example, if you need to collaborate with someone to solve a problem or
if you need to establish rapport with someone, written exchanges could
be far less efficient than a phone call or a face-to-face meeting. How-
ever, if you need precise wording or you need to provide a record of a
complex message, communicate in writing. If you need to make in-
formation that is frequently revised accessible to employees at a large
company, the best choice might be to place the information on the com-
pany’s intranet site. If reviewers need to submit their written comments
about a proposal, you can either send them paper copies of the pro-
posal that can be faxed or scanned, or you can send them the word-
processing file to insert their comments electronically. The comparative
advantages and primary characteristics of the most typical means of
communication are discussed in selecting the medium.
Research
The only way to be sure that you can write about a complex subject is
to thoroughly understand it. To do that, you must conduct adequate re-
search, whether that means conducting an extensive investigation for a
major proposal—through interviewing, library and Internet research,
and careful note-taking—or simply checking a company Web site and
jotting down points before you send an e-mail to a colleague.HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xix
Five Steps to Successful Writing xix
Methods of Research. Researchers frequently distinguish between pri-
mary and secondary research, depending on the types of sources con-
sulted and the method of gathering information. Primary research
refers to the gathering of raw data compiled from interviews, direct ob-
servation, surveys, experiments, questionnaires, and audio and video
recordings, for example. In fact, direct observation and hands-on expe-
rience are the only ways to obtain certain kinds of information, such as
the behavior of people and animals, certain natural phenomena, me-
chanical processes, and the operation of systems and equipment. Sec-
ondary research refers to gathering information that has been analyzed,
assessed, evaluated, compiled, or otherwise organized into accessible
form. Such forms or sources include books, articles, reports, Web docu-
ments, e-mail discussions, and brochures. Use the methods most appro-
priate to your needs, recognizing that some projects will require several
types of research and that collaborative projects may require those re-
search tasks to be distributed among team members.
Sources of Information. As you conduct research, numerous sources
of information are available to you, including the following:
• Your own knowledge and that of your colleagues
• The knowledge of people outside your workplace, gathered
through interviewing for information
• Internet sources, including Web sites, directories, archives, and dis-
cussion groups
• Library resources, including databases and indexes of articles as
well as books and reference works
• Printed and electronic sources in the workplace, such as various
correspondence, reports, and Web intranet documents
Consider all sources of information when you begin your research and
use those that are appropriate and useful. The amount of research you
will need to do depends on the scope of your project. See also docu-
menting sources.
Organization
Without organization, the material gathered during your research will
be incoherent to your readers. To organize information effectively, you
need to determine the best way to structure your ideas; that is, you
must choose a primary method of development.
Methods of Development. An appropriate method of development is
the writer’s tool for keeping information under control and the readers’
means of following the writer’s presentation. As you analyze the HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xx
xx Five Steps to Successful Writing
information you have gathered, choose the method that best suits your
subject, your readers’ needs, and your purpose. For example, if you were
writing instructions for assembling office equipment, you would natu-
rally present the steps of the process in the order readers should perform
them: the sequential method of development. If you were writing about
the history of an organization, your account would most naturally go
from the beginning to the present: the chronological method of develop-
ment. If your subject naturally lends itself to a certain method of devel-
opment, use it—do not attempt to impose another method on it.
Often you will need to combine methods of development. For
example, a persuasive brochure for a charitable organization might
combine a specific-to-general method of development with a cause-and-
effect method of development. That is, you could begin with persuasive
case histories of individual people in need and then move to general in-
formation about the positive effects of donations on recipients.
Outlining. Once you have chosen a method of development, you are
ready to prepare an outline. Outlining breaks large or complex subjects
into manageable parts. It also enables you to emphasize key points by
placing them in the positions of greatest importance. By structuring
your thinking at an early stage, a well-developed outline ensures that
your document will be complete and logically organized, allowing you
to focus exclusively on writing when you begin the rough draft. An out-
line can be especially helpful for maintaining a collaborative-writing
team’s focus throughout a large project. However, even a short letter or
memo needs the logic and structure that an outline provides, whether
the outline exists in your mind or on-screen or on paper.
At this point, you must begin to consider layout and design ele-
ments that will be helpful to your readers and appropriate to your sub-
ject and purpose. For example, if visuals such as photographs or tables
will be useful, this is a good time to think about where they may be po-
sitioned to be most effective and if they need to be prepared by some-
one else while you are writing and revising the draft. The outline can
also suggest where headings, lists, and other special design features may
be useful.
Writing
When you have established your purpose, your readers’ needs, and your
scope and have completed your research and your outline, you will be
well prepared to write a first draft. Expand your outline into para-
graphs, without worrying about grammar, refinements of language
usage, or punctuation. Writing and revising are different activities; re-
finements come with revision. HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xxi
Five Steps to Successful Writing xxi
Write the rough draft, concentrating entirely on converting your
outline into sentences and paragraphs. You might try writing as though
you were explaining your subject to a reader sitting across from you.
Do not worry about a good opening. Just start. Do not be concerned in
the rough draft about exact word choice unless it comes quickly and
easily—concentrate instead on ideas.
Even with good preparation, writing the draft remains a chore for
many writers. The most effective way to get started and keep going is to
use your outline as a map for your first draft. Do not wait for inspira-
tion—you need to treat writing a draft as you would any on-the-job
task. The entry writing a draft describes tactics used by experienced
writers—discover which ones are best suited to you and your task.
Consider writing an introduction last because then you will know
more precisely what is in the body of the draft. Your opening should
announce the subject and give readers essential background informa-
tion, such as the document’s primary purpose. For longer documents,
an introduction should serve as a frame into which readers can fit the
detailed information that follows.
Finally, you will need to write a conclusion that ties the main ideas
together and emphatically makes a final significant point. The final
point may be to recommend a course of action, make a prediction or a
judgment, or merely summarize your main points—the way you con-
clude depends on the purpose of your writing and your readers’ needs.
Revision
The clearer finished writing seems to the reader, the more effort the
writer has likely put into its revision. If you have followed the steps of
the writing process to this point, you will have a rough draft that needs
to be revised. Revising, however, requires a different frame of mind
than does writing the draft. During revision, be eager to find and cor-
rect faults and be honest. Be hard on yourself for the benefit of your
readers. Read and evaluate the draft as if you were a reader seeing it for
the first time.
Check your draft for accuracy, completeness, and effectiveness in
achieving your purpose and meeting your readers’ needs and expecta-
tions. Trim extraneous information: Your writing should give readers
exactly what they need, but it should not burden them with unneces-
sary information or sidetrack them into loosely related subjects.
Do not try to revise for everything at once. Read your rough draft
several times, each time looking for and correcting a different set of
problems or errors. Concentrate first on larger issues, such as unity and
coherence; save mechanical corrections, like spelling and punctuation,
for later proofreading. See also ethics in writing. HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xxii
xxii Five Steps to Successful Writing
Finally, for important documents, consider having others review
your writing and make suggestions for improvement. For collaborative
writing, of course, team members must review each other’s work on
segments of the document as well as the final master draft. Use the
Checklist of the Writing Process on pages xxiii–xxiv to guide you not
only as you revise but also throughout the writing process.
WEB LINK Style Guides and Standards
Organizations and professional associations often follow such guides
as The Chicago Manual of Style, MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly
Publishing, and United States Government Printing Office Style Manual
to ensure consistency in their publications on issues of usage, format,
and documentation. Because advice in such guides often varies, some
organizations set their own standards for documents. Where such stan-
dards or specific style guides are recommended or required by regula-
tions or policies, you should follow those style guidelines. For a selected
list of style guides and standards, see bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/
alredtech and select Links for Handbook Entries.HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xxiii
Checklist of the Writing Process
This checklist arranges key entries of the Handbook of Technical Writing
according to the sequence presented in Five Steps to Successful Writing,
which begins on page xv. This checklist is useful both for following the
steps and for diagnosing writing problems.
Preparation 389 Writing a Draft 569
Establish your purpose 435 Select an appropriate point of
view 385
Identify your audience or
readers 42, 448 Adopt an appropriate style and
tone 513, 532
Consider the context 98
Use effective sentence
Determine your scope of
construction 498
coverage 493
Construct effective
Select the medium 494
paragraphs 367
Use quotations and
Research 459
paraphrasing 445, 372
Brainstorm to determine what
Write an introduction 276
you already know 53
Write a conclusion 93
Conduct research 459
Choose a title 529
Take notes (note-taking) 347
Interview for information 270
Revision 490
Create and use
Check for unity and
questionnaires 437
coherence 543, 71
Avoid plagiarism 383
conciseness 90
Document sources 129
pace 367
transition 537
Organization 361
Check for sentence variety 505
Choose the best methods of
emphasis 167
development 329
parallel structure 370
Outline your notes and
subordination 516
ideas 362
Check for clarity 68
Develop and integrate
visuals 552 ambiguity 32
Consider layout and design 295 awkwardness 44
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xxiv Checklist of the Writing Process
logic errors 312 agreement 23
positive writing 386 case 62
voice 557 modifiers 334
Check for ethics in writing 177 pronoun reference 405
biased language 46 sentence faults 503
copyright 101 Review mechanics and
punctuation 434
plagiarism 383
abbreviations 2
Check for appropriate word
choice 568 capitalization 59
abstract / concrete words 6 contractions 101
affectation and jargon 22, 285 dates 115
clichés 71 italics 283
connotation / denotation 96 numbers 352
defining terms 116 proofreading 411
Eliminate problems with spelling 512
grammar 234HTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page xxv
Handbook of
Technical WritingHTW_fm01.qxp 8/22/08 8:52 AM Page iiHTW_ch0A.qxp 8/25/08 8:40 AM Page 1
A
A
a / an
A and an are indefinite articles because the noun designated by the ar-
ticle is not a specific person, place, or thing but is one of a group.
She installed a program.
not a specific program but an unnamed program
Use a before words or abbreviations beginning with a consonant or
consonant sound, including y or w.
A manual is available online.
It was a historic event for the Institute.
Historic begins with the consonant h.
We received a DNA sample.
The year’s activities are summarized in a one-page report.
One begins with the consonant sound “wuh.”
Use an before words or abbreviations beginning with a vowel or a con-
sonant with a vowel sound.
The report is an overview of the year’s activities.
The applicant arrived an hour early.
Hour begins with a silent h.
She bought an SLR digital camera.
SLR begins with a vowel sound “ess.”
Do not use unnecessary indefinite articles in a sentence.
Fill with a half a pint of fluid.
Choose one article and eliminate the other.
See also adjectives.
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2 a lot
A
a lot
A lot is often incorrectly written as one word (alot). The phrase a lot is
informal and normally should not be used in technical writing. Use
many or numerous for estimates or give a specific number or amount.
many
We received a lot of e-mails supporting the new policy.
abbreviations
DIRECTORY
Using Abbreviations 2
Writer’s Checklist: Using Abbreviations 3
Forming Abbreviations 3
Names of Organizations 3
Measurements 4
Personal Names and Titles 4
Common Scholarly Abbreviations 4
Abbreviations are shortened versions of words or combinations of the
first letters of words (Corp./Corporation, URL/Uniform Resource Lo-
cator). Abbreviations, if used appropriately, can be convenient for both
the reader and the writer. Like symbols, they can be important space
savers in technical writing.
Abbreviations that are formed by combining the initial letter of
each word in a multiword term are called initialisms. Initialisms are
pronounced as separate letters (AC or ac/alternating current). Abbrevia-
tions that combine the first letter or letters of several words—and can
be pronounced—are called acronyms (PIN/personal identification num-
ber, laser/light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation).
Using Abbreviations
In business, industry, and government, specialists and those working to-
gether on particular projects often use abbreviations. The most impor-
tant consideration in the use of abbreviations is whether they will be
understood by your audience. The same abbreviation, for example, can
have two different meanings (NEA stands for both the National Edu-
cation Association and the National Endowment for the Arts). Like
jargon, shortened forms are easily understood within a group of spe-
cialists; outside the group, however, shortened forms might be incom-
prehensible. In fact, abbreviations can be easily overused, either as an
affectation or in a misguided attempt to make writing concise, even